The Role of Federalism in Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Role of Federalism in Education - Essay Example Civil rights leaders, such as Evers and King, publicized the unfair treatment of African Americans and other people of color, and the spotlight turned on education reform (Allen, 1996, p. 162). Since 1965 many further efforts have been made to update and improve the education system, but it's similar to plugging up leaks in a dam--eventually, the dam will fall apart through lack of structure and foundation. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, signed into law by George W. Bush, is the present administration's effort to rebuild the dam before it's too late, but will politics and business interests create invisible cracks during implementation Is this Act the ultimate answer and does it take into consideration the global issues that presently exist in the 21st century As America continues to evolve as a nation, the influence of the Internet on communication between countries makes it clear that education must include multicultural education, not specifically from the viewpoint of Americans with no knowledge of other cultures, but with input from those who can share their native language and their way of life with others. We live in a country of immigrants, but somewhere along the line we chose to establish a nation based on white, Anglo-Saxon, protestant tenets, ignoring the rich mix of cultures that make us who we are. According to Sonia Nieto, "Multicultural education cannot be understood in a vacuum but rather must be seen in its personal, social, historical, and political context" (1996, p. 1). Addressing Education Reform During the 1950s in the United States, the family unit seemed solid and pediatrician Dr. Benjamin Spock gave mothers credit for knowing instinctively how to raise their children. This was in contrast to behaviorist John Watson's method of rigid discipline, and Spock's book The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946) was so popular it led to gradual erosion of the rules of behavior. In the meantime, a 1954 Supreme Court ruling that public schools must be integrated was virtually ignored until 1957 when nine black students were enrolled at a previously all-white school in Little Rock, Arkansas. This was the beginning of the public's introduction to cultural differences, and it was compounded by what was known as the "Red Threat," or communism. When the Soviet Union launched Sputnik first, it was decided that American children needed a better educational foundation, especially in math and science. This created what was called at the time an "informational flood" with children a nd their reading becoming the focus of big business. With this increased production, "children's books became less a branch of literature and more a gainful product" (Allen, p. 132). The increasing focus on children's education made its shortcomings more evident, and it was clearly necessary to address segregation and unequal educational opportunity due to poverty. The problems inherent in the education system as it existed in the 1960s called for drastic measures. Francis Keppel, dean of Harvard Graduate School of Education, was appointed U.S. Commissioner of Education and crafted the ESEA of 1965 in an effort to address the issues that extended

Chateau St. Michelle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chateau St. Michelle - Essay Example The above information is probably the only information known to wide audience about Chateau Ste. Michelle, however, under the closer examination some of the competitive strategies become obvious. Chateau Ste. Michelle has a specific effort to please customers, makes offensive and defensive moves to counter rival's actions and responses to market conditions, thus strengthening its market position. The goal of the competitive strategy is to do the better job in providing what buyers are looking for. It is possible to say that Chateau Ste. Michelle has the edge over rivals in attracting buyers and coping with competitive forces - being among the top preferred brands is an evidence of this. One of the distinct features of the Chateau Ste. Michelle is that the top management pays close attention to performing value chain activities differently than rivals - for example, growing the grape on its own rather than buying it from suppliers. It creates additional value in the eyes of the consumers. Out of the five competitive strategy approaches the broad differentiation strategy is the most applied in this specific company. For example, Chateau Ste. Michelle does not apply low cost provider or focused market niche strategy because its products are of higher price compared to the competitors. In return, the customers get more differentiated products at the cost that corresponds to the high quality.

Interview Settings Essay Example for Free

Interview Settings Essay Having a conversation with a potential employer or a doctor an individual unconsciously puts himself or herself below the level of his/her interlocutor due to the reason of their communication: applying for a job or sudden chickenpox. Therefore, it is important that the employer makes certain efforts with regard to the overall environment in the office or wherever the interview is carried out. To put theory into practice, I made a decision to call the faculty office and ask them whether they will be willing to answer some of my questions for my future report. Having accepted my offer, they asked me about the time. Eventually, the interview was appointed and I was supposed to come at 9am. Later it turned out that the period of time between 8am and 11am is the most productive one and the staff intentionally asked me to visit them in the morning. Immediately after I came in the faculty office, I was offered a coffee and a sit. The walls of the room were covered with pictures of relatives and friends of the faculty staff creating an atmosphere of warmth and friendliness. Cozy armchairs and quiet music contributed to the calmness of the overall environment. Regardless of the fact, that there were many staff members in the office, they were mostly reading and therefore nothing disturbed my interview with the professor who was extremely eager to help me. Unlike the faculty office, the atmosphere in my boss’s office was characterized by overwhelming noise of equipment (computers, laptops, scanners, etc). Additionally, I could see many people chatting, laughing, and going back and forth. Having notified my boss about my interview in advance, I found that the scheduling was inconvenient as he made an appointment at 7pm on Friday. Unfortunately, I had to cancel my date to visit the boss. When I came to the office, I asked the receptionist whether the previous meeting had already been finished so I could talk to the employer. Preliminarily, I had to wait until the receptionist finished talking on the phone with her friend about â€Å"that cute football player†. In a couple of minutes I was told that the boss could not talk to me right away as a part of our department was out of fix and needed some maintenance. It was not until 7. 40pm that he asked me to enter his room. Surprisingly enough, I noticed a group of people moving furniture a couple of feet away from us getting ready for the repairs. They did not keep silence and therefore my boss and me could not have a proper talk with potential valid evaluation of each other. According to the notes, it is a must for every employer to have in-depth knowledge in ethics. However, every now and then I saw his eyes moving towards the workers. The overall environment was distracting and he even yawned twice. As I found myself in a very uncomfortable situation from psychological point of view, I asked for a glass of water. However, it turned out that they had nothing to drink. The third place, doctor’s office, was similar to the first faculty office. The atmosphere was welcoming and peaceful. I suppose that the doctor’s office was the safest place among three places I have visited. Physicians were dressed in white with dry clean hands; the building was high with much light inside and office-cleaners taking care of the hygiene. The atmosphere was friendly and hospitable. During my conversation with the doctor he was examining me with various medical instruments. It worsened the situation and communication process in general as pulling up the t-shirt and breathing in and out made me feel as if the physician was not fully interested in my opinion. At this point, my boss’s office was much more convenient for the inte4rview and negotiations in general as I was sitting just in front of him. In conclusion it would be appropriate to note that interview settings include various significant aspects responsible for the outcome of the interview. REFERENCES †¢ Interview Questions And Answers Anticipating awkward interview questions. (2006). Accura Resumes. Retrieved March 6, 2007, from http://www. accuroresumes. com/articles-info/interview-articles/questions. html

Charles de Gaulle Airport Roof Collapse

Charles de Gaulle Airport Roof Collapse Table of Contents Title Page 1 Abstract 2 TOC 3 Introduction 4 Relevant sections 5 Conclusion 8 References ( Work Cited) 9 The Charles de Gaulle Airport collapse was one of the most expensive in repairs, the initial project was already a stunning 900 million dollars. The airport was located in Paris, France and was a hotspot for tourists and other visitors as many amusement parks, food places, etc were just minutes away. On May 23, 2004, disaster would strike on terminal 2E as the roof collapsed, killing 4 people and injuring 3 others. When investigated by law enforcement and other fellow engineers, faults in the design were found, because the project was rushed and safety measures were a bit ignored. Another reason for the collapse was found to be due to thermal expansion, the warm metal structure expanded and contracted as the temperature went from high 70s to the low 30s that same morning, loosening the grip and support as it suddenly cooled down and shrank, causing the collapse. Introduction In the early 2000s , a nine-hundred million dollar project was going to be introduced to the city of   Paris, France. The project designer was Paul Andreu, the one in charge of how smooth and crisp this project was going to turn out. This is known as the Charles de Gaulle Airport, an airport that at the time and still today is considered being one of the largest in the world, holding seventeen planes and had the capacity to hold 10,000,000 passengers a year, and on a daily basis transported roughly two-hundred thousand   passengers. This airport was a huge success, there were so many tourist attractions minutes away, which made the airport a hot spot for visitors, a very excellent place to locate this airport. The Charles de Gaulle Airport consisted of three layers of material, the outer layer consisted of plate glass, giving the structure a very modern look at the time. The middle layer was made up of metal supports, a very good choice for materials to hold and make this buildin g sturdy. And lastly the inner layer, or the inside was composed of concrete blocks that would help support the metal supports. Many who entered the airport were stunned at the scenery, a very modern yet futuristic look, that when waiting for a next flight, which would often be a couple of hours, would be an enjoyable place to wait, relax, and enjoy the scenery. A couple of months had passed since the construction of the airport, and people were calling it a jewel from France, as it showed off French engineering skill and in a way, a sense of style. Relevant Sections On the oddly cold morning of May 23, 2004, catastrophe would have a toll on the Charles de Gaulle Airport located near Paris, France. It was early in the morning, around 7 am, when a few tourists heard cracking like sounds and noticed small clouds of dust coming down from the ceiling, and then, it collapsed. Down came the roof, tons of concrete fell leaving a huge gap in the terminal. Each square foot weighed about 60 pounds, the width of the terminal was 100 and counting feet, so trying to imagine how much weight could have fallen on a person is something you do not want to think about. As the concrete roof gave out, it fell flat to the ground killing 4 people and injuring 3. Terminal 2E had crumbled to the ground! This took many people by surprise because it had not even been its anniversary yet, it had only been active for 11 months when the tragedy happened. For now, that is all people knew about the accident, nobody knew how this could have happened and what the cause was. Furth er investigation was still to take place, and people anxiously waited to see what the police and other investigators could dig out from this. Investigation During investigation and various interviews, local engineers and also the police came to the conclusion that the problems did not come from a freak accident, but they did lead back to the faulty designs in the terminal. It was found that cautionary measures were not taken in mind during the design. A stunning find was that the opening of the terminal was delayed a day after a  chandelier fell because of the moving in the ceiling. This made people want to learn more and the investigations were taken deeper into the case. Findings and Recommendations On May 23, 2004, a catastrophe that would leave many French stunned and those in neighboring countries occurred as terminal 2E of the Charles De Gaulle Airport fell to the ground, killing 4 and injuring 3. Faulty and rushed designs were to blame, and more research and causes were yet to be found. Deep into the investigation already, it was pointed out that the metal structures were inserted too deep into the concrete blocks, causing the cracking in the roof. At the same time , this cracking weakened the roof, causing it to collapse. However, something else was found to be a cause of the collapse. The metal structure was constantly hot, which made it expand, and as mentioned before, the temperature had drastically dropped from around 73 degrees fahrenheit all the way down to around 38 degrees. This meant that at one point the metal was flexible as it was warm , but as soon as the temperature dropped quickly, it made the metal shrink back as it tried to straighten out, loosening the gr ip on the already cracked concrete blocks and causing it   all to plunge to the ground. Impact on Engineering Practices Ever since engineers heard about the incident, many have really taken their time handling workers to do the jobs done and right. They have also insured that their plans and sketches are accurate and are always safe after the construction is done. Peoples safety and well being is now  a must while developing and constructing buildings that are enormous and cost so much money. People should feel safe when boarding a new state of the art plane or entering a brand new future like building. Someones life should never be at risk because an engineer or architect etc failed to see a safety hazard. In conclusion, the Charles de Gaulle Airport disaster was not so bad in the amount of victims suffered. However it was useful for many architects and engineers as they learned to analyze more carefully and ensure the safety of those who would be involved in their building or structure. To ensure that this wouldnt happen again, it was decided to rebuild the entire structure and this time , without using the heavy tons of concrete. They opted to use glass and metal sheeting and for the structures the metal was still the 1st option. Now the terminal and the rest of the airport has been rebuilt and is as successful as it had been before. Https://www.facebook.com/JackieCravenWrites. Why Did the Charles-de-Gaulle Airport Terminal Collapse? About.com Home. N.p., 24 Apr. 2016. Web. 21 Dec. 2016. Rubric rating submitted on: 12/21/2016, 12:47:19 PM by [emailprotected] 10 5 0 Title Page    Your score: 5 x Present not done Table of Contents    Your score: 5 x Present not done Abstract    Your score: 10 Present not done Introduction    Your score: 5 x Background    Your score: 10 Present not done Investigation    Your score: 7 Present not done Findings    Your score: 10 Present not done Impact    Your score: 10 Present not done Conclusion    Your score: 5 x not done References    Your score: 5 References included no references Notes    Your score: 0 Notes recorded no notes 6 Content Pages    Your score: 7 filled 6 pages 3 content pages no contents pages Comments: [1]should be after the table of contents and shorter see if you can get it down to 4-5 sentences

The Philosophy of Rationality in Economics

The Philosophy of Rationality in Economics Nikita Kohli The ways of being human are bound but infinite. -Larry Niven An Introduction There exists no single definition of Rationality, yet it forms the cornerstone of basal assumptions of standard models of economics. A sweeping glance of the concept however, elucidates one fact. Rationality deals in human behaviour, it aims to understand its motivations and predict future outcomes based on choices. Rife with contradictions and limitations analogous to the innate complexity of human nature, this theory has been repeated altered and manifests itself in different ways with the progression of time. Objectives: The primary objective of this paper is to qualitatively analyze economic literature and draw conclusions pertaining to the concept of rationality and its relevance in the world today. Literature Review This paper, as the title suggests, aims to examine the concept of rationality, its use both philosophically in the study of broad humanity as well as in its more specific application to economics and standard models of human behaviour. In order to gain an understanding of early texts exploring concepts of rationality, such as the works of Aristotle and, the author relied on interpretative papers such as those of Fred Miller (1984). Various original works of authors have been studied chronologically to enable a historic overview of the concept, eventually yielding to contemporary work, implications and applications to various phenomena. Notable repositories of information such as the Palgrave Dictionary of Economics and critical essays on the subject of Rationality (a collection edited by Bill Gerrard) have been accessed. The papers with their extensive reference lists gave the author insight into the vast literature focused on this specific subject. Reviews and critiques, and studies in retrospect of concepts have been perused to help put an idea from another time into contemporary perspective. PART 1 Rationality: A historical Analysis If one devalues rationality, the world tends to fall apart – Lars Von Trier The first mention of the concept of Rationality is seen in the work of Aristotle; who states that the human being has a rational principle and the ability to carry out rationally formulated projects. (Miller, 1984). ‘Homo Economicus’ or the ‘Economic Man’ was a term that first appeared in the work of J.S Mill who described man as ‘solely as a being who desires to possess wealth, and who is capable of judging the comparative efficacy of means for obtaining that end’. (Mill, 1844). This is the base of the most widespread assumption in economics – that man strives to only maximize his utility and satisfaction, and this trait, intrinsic to all men, is termed ‘rationality’. Jevons, the forbearer of mathematical economics propounded a quantitative measure of the utility function. In stressing on the concept of marginal utility, he put forth some basic tenets of the utility consumption theory, namely that economic agents derive utility by consumption of goods, and that they are rational, calculating maximisers. In attempting to ‘treat the economy as a  calculus  of pleasure and pain’, Jevons (1871) set the foundations for a paradigm of Economics, which was deeply rooted in individualistic theories of motivation and decisions. Von Mises (1949), in his seminal work on human nature and decision making, asserted that human action is ‘necessarily always rational’. His understanding of rationality, however, differed from that of his successors in the field of Economics. He believed that every human being acted in a way that furthered their self-interest and was to achieve some end goal. When viewed in pure subjectivity, no action can be termed irrational as every human being acts out of some motivation, thus making the action ‘rational’. Concepts of Rationality: A contemporary analysis All human behavior is scheduled and programmed through rationality.   Michael Foucault In the early 1960s, mathematical economist John Muth (considered the Father of the Rational Expectations Revolution in Economics) put forth a body of work that would leave on indelible mark on the rationality discourse. For the first time, a significant difference in economic analysis was made, that between ‘adaptive’ and ‘rational’ expectations. Muth’s work and the theory of Rational Expectations was considered iconoclastic at the time as it proposed a shift in knowledge processing, analysis and decision making. Neo-classical economics, as propounded by Friedman, Keynes and others dealt with systems and analysis using historical data. This was termed ‘adaptive’. Adaptive neo-classical theory forms the basis for many policy decisions, be in pump-priming investment or monetary contraction. Policy is created in keeping with past results and some common assumptions in economics – people will demand more when the government invests in the economy etc. In contrast, Rational Expectations take into view the whole economy, in its real-time functionality, and uses imbibes current information in its analysis. It propounds that ‘rational agents’ continuously update their information and take into account the whole system. As Muth (1961) asserts, ‘the economy does not waste information, and that expectations depend specifically on the structure of the entire system. In addition to this fundamental tenet, this school of thought also states that markets will always clear; prices will adjust to fluctuations in supply almost immediately. When this concept is extrapolated to encompass the macro economy, it is often stated that no government policy or exogenous shock can shake up the system. This is because of the existence of rational agents, who, using their knowledge of existing phenomenon, expect certain outcomes and adjust their course of action accordingly. For instance, in a recessionary period, sellers will not let their prices fall. They behave in this manner because they are aware of the current scenario and preempt government investment intervention to attenuate falling demand. Thus they expect their demand to rise in the near future. As Greg Egan would put it, ‘It all adds up to normality’. While implicit in the Rational Expectations theory is the existence of perfect knowledge, transmuting into rational decisions, there emerged a field of study which emphasized the shortcomings of knowledge and information acquisition. The term ‘Bounded Rationality’ was introduced by Herbert Simon in his book Models of Man (1957). While in spirit adhering to the belief that human beings are rational, Simon’s theory observed a critical failing; that of the assumption of complete information. In this structure, human behaviour is viewed not in terms of rational, utility maximizing behaviour. Instead, it is seen as a series of actions, often not compatible with each other, decisions taken in situations of partial information and based on limited reflection. This accounts for the limitations to both knowledge and cognitive capacity. Taking this idea further, simmering in the field of human behaviour vis a vis economic processes, is the belief that human beings can sometimes be ‘Irrational’. Carrying out specific studies in this area, economist Dan Ariely finds surprising results. In a given situation, a person may make a choice which will not benefit them in the future, may not help them immediately, and the decision is made in the light of these two eventualities. Ariely explains that this is because human behaviour is not always controlled by rational motives, it is highly impulse driven and impacted heavily by exogenous factors. In the early 1960s, Gary Becker put forth the same idea; only that he believed even irrational agents can work ‘smoothly as a single unit’. Human irrationality, he states, was in fact rational. PART 2 – NUANCES OF RATIONALITY Amartya Sen anchors a clear distinction in the approaches to Rationality in literature. He divides them into two broad categories – Instrumental Rationality and Substantive Rationality. Substantive rationality is when one acts out of objectively, independently defined self interest. This lends itself to the General Equilibrium theory, the starting point of individual behaviour is a predefined utility function, and choice arises from this within the constraints imposed. Instrumental rationality dons a more humane approach wherein it allows for objectives that are not restricted to solely self-interest. This methodology acknowledges the influence of other factors on rationality. Sociologist Max Weber states a similar idea; that of Wertrationalor value/belief-oriented rationality, wherein the motives for action are often driven by reasons intrinsic to a particular actor, such as specific emotions, societal or spiritual aspects. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky have made important contributions to the understanding of rationality and reactions to choice. The Prospect theory attempts to describe decisions under uncertainty. It empirically proves that a decision making process is often not rational; people are risk-averse when they stand to incur losses and risk-taking when they stand to gain. Another obstacle to ‘rational’ thinking is the problems posed by ‘heuristics’ (Kahneman Tversky, 1974). Heuristics are mental short-cuts, which usually involve focusing on one part of a complex problem and often ignoring the larger, more complete set of information. This limited perception of the issue at hand is used to make a decision. In any sphere of study, the influence of external social factors cannot be denied, on a superficial level, this impact could manifest itself in the way of the ‘Demonstration’ or ‘Bandwagon’ effect. On deeper examination, we see that these exogenous factors often define an individual’s sense of Rationality, which leads us to realize that Rationality can never be completely objective or homogenously innate to all. Adopting a pragmatic approach to the limitations posed by imperfect knowledge, Herbert Simon proposes the term ‘satisficing’. He pointed out that human beings lack the cognitive resources tooptimize: the relevant probabilities of outcomes are usually, thus the evaluation of all outcomes with sufficient precision is rare, if not impossible. A more realistic approach to rationality takes into account these limitations. An important application of the rationality principle in neo-classical economic theory is in the analyses of perfect competition. Competitive equilibrium is said to have been reached when each person maximizes their utility, given a certain set of assumptions (no externalities). This state of equilibrium will tend towards Pareto Optimality as it is assumed that the Pareto Optimal state is one where there is perfectly competitive equilibrium at a given set of prices and some initial distribution of resources. Every rational utility maximizer is in equilibrium, wherein no one can be made better off without hurting another’s well-being and current status. This basal assumption of rational behaviour establishes the relationship between the aforementioned concepts. PART 3: CONCLUSION In everything, one thing is impossible: rationality – Nietshchze This paper has attempted to shed light upon the various dimensions of rationality, as depicted in economic phenomenon. Problems arise however, with the implicit assumption of rationality in models involving human behaviour in varied situations. Rationality implies comprehensive knowledge of the current economic system, which is then factored into the decision making process. In keeping with the ‘Efficient Market Hypothesis’, markets will always correct themselves and clear as people are able to adapt and adjust to fluctuations almost immediately, due to their information. It has also been argued that natural processes of elimination ensure that rationality perpetuates itself, where those who act ‘rationally’ work optimally. This can be seen in nature, in the principle of ‘survival of the fittest’. Milton Friedman also draws this parallel to markets, where non-profit maximizing firms are driven to a wall so that only the ‘rational’, profit maximizing firms may survive. (Friedman, 1953). These applications and assumptions are rife with shortfalls. The first limitation is that of ‘knowledge’. Acquisition of this perfect knowledge to facilitate rationality is expensive, consumes resources, and in many cases proves impossible to obtain. To assume that perfect knowledge is a prerequisite for rational behaviour limits its scope. While looking at markets and macro-structures, one can see rational expectations as the underlying force in stock markets. These markets are extremely sensitive to minor fluctuations and react almost instantaneously to restore equilibrium. The same cannot be said of the economy. It is impossible to expect policy to change, or its impact to be as versatile as is seen in the stock markets. The case of the rupee depreciation illustrates this point, wherein the stock markets adjust to the disturbance, but the economy is left flagging. Chamberlin points out, that for Perfectly Competitive equilibrium to exist, there at first must exist a certain measure of disequilibrium. He states that not merely pure, but perfect competition is requisite for the rationality hypotheses can have their full power. The existence of the initial disequilibrium, in conditions of complete rationality, proves to be contradictory. Another limitation of the rationality assumption is that it makes for models that are normative, rather positive. Formally and explicitly, these provide frameworks to understand how agents should act in order to maximize their self interest. This fails in its predictive capacity, to see how one will behave in the future. We’re all mad here – Cheshire Cat, Alice in Wonderland Rationality is assumed to be highly centered on the individual. But as Kenneth Arrow 1986) points out, rationality gathers not only its force, but very meaning from the social context in which it is embedded. It holds only under ideal conditions, the nature of which is not seen in the world today. Adam Smith in the Theory of Moral Sentiments attributes actions to not only self-interest, but more humane factors like love, benevolence and community feeling. A science taking into account human behaviour must closely study its major drivers. Exposure to various social factors and upbringing influences the way people think. Defining rationality becomes problematic, what is rational to one may be deemed irrational to another. For instance, faith, religious belief, personal opinions and ideology are not universal in their impact and acceptance. Rationality then becomes extremely contextual; one person’s rationality is bound to not hold in another person’s situation. Rationality can also be temporal, due to the lack of accurate information about the future; what holds true today or in the immediate foreseeable future, may not hold in the long-run. The limits and bounds to rational thinking are not clear and universal, they’re morphed and moulded and coloured by personal experiences and biases. A crucial distinction needs to be made about what kind of behaviour is rational and what is not, and what models of behaviour may be useful in predicting actual behaviour. Taking into account various individualities poses a great challenge, but to attribute motivation and action to perfect rationality, especially in the context of subjective human behaviour, is problematic. Anomalies will be patent to the process of fitting human nature and motives into an objective framework. The author concludes that an assumption about human beings, especially one as pervasive as assumed rationality, is dangerous. At the same time, accounting for individual drivers is nearly impossible. Policy, and core economic theory must be able to account for, at the very least acknowledge, these discrepancies. This is the only way to create frameworks which may work with greater precision. REFERENCES Arrow, K. J. (1986). Rationality of self and others in an economic system.  Journal of Business, S385-S399. Friedman, M. (1953). The methodology of positive economics.  The Philosophy of economics: an anthology,2, 180-213. Heap, H.S (1993) Post Modernity and New Conceptions of Rationality in Economics. In The Economics of Rationality. (pp. 48-60). Routledge Jevons, W. S. (1871).  The Theory of Political Economy. Macmillan and Company. Kahneman, D. (1994). New challenges to the rationality assumption.  Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics (JITE)/Zeitschrift fà ¼r die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 18-36. Kahneman, D. (2003). Maps of bounded rationality: Psychology for behavioral economics.  The American economic review,  93(5), 1449-1475. List, J. A. (2004). Neoclassical theory versus prospect theory: Evidence from the marketplace.  Econometrica,  72(2), 615-625. Mill, J. S., Backhouse, R. E. (1997).  On the Definition of Political Economy; and of the Method of Investigation Proper to it: Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy (1844); On the Logic of the Moral Sciences: A System of Logic (1856)(Vol. 1). Routledge. Miller, F. D. (1984). Aristotle on Rationality in Action. The Review of Metaphysics, 499-520.s Muth, J. F. (1961). Rational expectations and the theory of price movements.Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 315-335. Sen, A. (2000). Reason before identity.  Romanes Lecture. Sen, A. K. (1977). Rational fools: A critique of the behavioral foundations of economic theory.  Philosophy Public Affairs,  6(4), 317-344. Stewart, S. A. (2005). Can behavioral economics save us from ourselves?.  University of Chicago magazine, 97(3). Swidler, A. (1973). The concept of rationality in the work of Max Weber.  Sociological Inquiry, 43(1), 35-42. Tetlock, P. E., Mellers, B. A. (2002). The great rationality debate.  Psychological Science, 13(1), 94-99. Tversky, A., Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.  science,  185(4157), 1124-1131. Tversky, A., Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational choice and the framing of decisions. Journal of business, S251-S278. Von Mises, L., Greaves, B. B. (1949). Human action (pp. 59-62). Liberty Fund. Webliography Future Prospects. (2013, Aug, 5). retrieved September 1 2013, from The Economist Web Site: http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2013/08/prospect-theory-and-economics Rethinking Thinking. (1999, Dec, 16). retrieved September 1 2013, from The Economist Web Site: http://www.economist.com/node/268946

Essay --

The American College of Sports Medicine’s fitness trend survey for 2011 consisted of information from the health and fitness industry as well as the opinions of professionals who currently worked in the field. The survey encouraged its respondents to make the important distinction between a â€Å"fad† and a â€Å"trend† (Thompson, 2010). This survey consists of trends rather than fads a trend is a long term change in the way people behave. A fad on the other hand is a short term fashion that is taken up with strong feeling of active interest but only for a brief period. Trying out new exercise techniques and fitness programs can encourage and motivate people to engage in physical activity. The ACSM conducted its first fitness survey in 2006 for the predicted trends of 2007 this was the earliest effort in developing a systematic way to predict the future of the health and fitness industry (Thompson, 2010). There were three consecutive surveys conducted to identify fitness trends for the year 2008, 2009 and 2010. The surveys measured health and fitness trends in various sectors of the industry which consisted of commercial (for-profit), clinical (medical fitness), community (not-for-profit) and corporate sectors (Thompson, 2010). The 2011 survey consisted of 31 feasible trends which was six lesser than the previous 2010 survey. The number was fewer because the respondents complained about the length of the survey. The 31 items were designed using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1-10 the low score of 1 (less likely to be a trend) and 10 (most likely to be a trend) (Thompson, 2010). The initial step in this analysis was to gather all of the responses and place them in order from the most crowd-pleasing trend to the least popular trend. The r... ...ed due to cost. Programs that were considered costly such as Pilates and indoor cycling are no longer in the top 20. The results of the 2014 survey predicts that more people will be engaging in high-intensity interval training (HIT) this was the trend’s debut year. This was offered as a potential trend in previous surveys but never made it to the top 20. This trend is more appealing to consumers because it takes less time allowing people to engage in other daily responsibilities. Another cost-effective trend also making its debut in the survey is body weight training which uses very little equipment which helps to keep cost down. Consumers are also engaging in group personal training which consists of two or more people being trained by one person trainer in order save money. Based on these predictions the new trend for fitness consumers is to save time and money.

Use of Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports Essay -- Doping in Sports

The use of performance enhancing drugs in sports (doping) is done to improve athletic performance. Doping in sports has become a highly controversial topic among professional sporting venues and in the media. With the increased pressure to perform, high priced contracts, increased competition, and advanced training methods today’s athletes will try to gain an edge by any means necessary. Performance enhancing drugs used by athletes today include Human Growth Hormone (HGH), anabolic steroids, peptide hormones, amphetamines, insulin and stimulants. The reason athletes use performance enhancing drugs is to increase the amount of testosterone produced in the body. The increased testosterone in the body increases muscle strength by enabling new muscle growth. Although there are laws passed with the intention of ridding sports of the use of performance enhancing drugs, it is still a highly debated topic. Supporters argue it is beneficial for the sport. The opposition argues against it. A syndicated political columnist argues â€Å"Drugs that make sport exotic drain it of its exemplary power by making it a display of chemistry rather than character—actually, a display of chemistry and bad character† (Will). In light of the overwhelming evidence, one must agree with the 2004 Anabolic Steroids Act, which attempts to ban the use of anabolic steroids in U.S sporting events. The use of performance enhancing drugs in sports is dangerous, unethical and ruins the integrity of the specific sport, by giving an unfair advantage to the user over their competitors. No one can deny that the use of performance enhancing drugs in sports makes it much more entertaining for fans. Watching home run records get shattered, and new world record times being set,... ...iego: Greenhaven Press, 2006. At Issue. Rpt. from "testimony before the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Foreign Commerce, and Tourism." 2002. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. "We Should Accept Performance-Enhancing Drugs in Competitive Sports." Writ. Radley Balko. Intelligence Squared US debate. Intelligence2 debates. 15 Jan. 2008. Web. 26 Apr. 2012. West, Doug. "Steroids Are Harmful." Steroids. Ed. Laura K. Egendorf. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2006. At Issue. Rpt. from "Steroid Abuse—Getting Bigger." Youthcultureï ¼  today. 2002. 20-24. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. Will, George F. "Steroids Are Destroying Baseball." Steroids. Ed. Laura K. Egendorf. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2006. At Issue. Rpt. from "Steroids Scandal Is Damaging to Baseball." Conservative Chronicle (15 Dec. 2004): 25. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web.